Totipotensi properties

Totipotensi properties

Totipotensi the nature of the plant tissue used to obtain uniform seedlings in large quantities and cepat.sel plant cells can be totipotensi (full potential), which are cells that can sustain the potential of the zygote to form all of the mature organism.

Totipotensi theory in kemukanan by G. Heberland in 1898. In 1950, FC Steward and his students obtained intact carrot plants from somatic cells carrot root phloem cells.

Totipotensi stages in carrot cells to form new individuals are as follows:

1. Carrot root phloem of plants
2. Cut into small pieces each 2 mg
3. Grown on media bernutrien
4. Cells divide, forming callus (tissue that has not differentiated)
5. Calli were separated in a nutrient medium
6. Callus formed embryo splitting
7. The new plant is formed

Based on the nature totipotensi, one of the plant can be cloned into genetically identical plants.Usahan obtain a new individual from a cell or tissue known as a bunch of cell culture or tissue culture. Principles of cell culture or tissue culture together with the child's principle in vegetative cuttings premises. In cuttings , each plant potonng part will grow into a new individual. However , the tissue culture method should pay attention to the sterility of equipment and materials.

tissue culture

In tissue culture, cells or tissues are grown to form an organism that has a complete section.Nutrition and hormones auxin and cytokinin in the growth media, will spur pebelahan cells resulting in growth. If the plant were injured, traumalin acid will heal the wound.The hormone auxin in the injury causes rapid cell division and form a smooth lump called callus is not yet differentiated. Callus cells could be developed into new individuals. With tissue culture, the entire plant can be a new individual dikembangkn (Solomon et al.2005).

The advantage of using tissue culture techniques

• Free to determine the plant to be cultured
• Relatively short time required
• Does not require a large room
• Quickly produce a new crop of one crop

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Mosses (Bryophyta)

Mosses (Bryophyta)

CHARACTERISTICS:

1. Not have roots and leaves of a true, well not yet have a real vessel.                                                                     
2. Roots, absorbing organ is rizoid haranya. 
3. Moss plant leaves can photosynthesize.

Rotation descent

        

" Moss has rotation descent in the life cycle . What is known as the stage of mosses is the gametophyte (gamete-producing plants) are haploid " 

Thus, there is tumbuhanlumut males and females as a single plant can not produce two sex cells simultaneously.

Male sex cells ( sperm cells ) generated from anteridium and female sex cells ( egg or ovum ) is located in thearkegonium . Both of these sex cells producing organs located at the top of the plant. Anteridium the cook will release the sperm cells. Sperm cells to swim ( fertilization occurs when wet environmental conditions ) to arkegonium to fertilize the ovum.

The fertilized ovum will grow into sporophytes are diploid (x = 2n) and short-lived (3-6 months to reach a stage of maturity).

Sporophytes will form a capsule called sporogonium at the end. Sporogonium containing haploid spores are formed through meiosis .  Sporogonium cook will release the spores. The spores grow into a files calledprotonem a .  These files grow and expand at a certain stage will foster a new gametophyte. "

Classification of mosses

Classification 
consists of three classes, namely:

1. Hepaticopsida class (Hepaticae)
2. Anthocerotopsida class (Anthocerotae)
3. Bryopsida class (Musci)

1.Hepaticopsida

Characteristics - The characteristics Hepaticopsida

1. Gametophyte is green, flat, dorsiventral, the structure is simple or terdifrensiasi talus on the stems and leaves, attached to the ground by using rizoid
2. Sporofit not have cells that contain chloroplasts and in it there is no kolumella
3. Spores do not germinate through the establishment of Prototype
4. Asexual propagation
5. fragmentation
6. bud formation (Gemma) in marchantia example, Lunularia and Blasia
7. Establishment of branch shoots fluitan Riccia example, Targionia and Reboulia
8. The formation of tubers (tuber) Petalophyllum eg, Anthoceros
9. Thickening of the end of the talus Anthalamia example,

Liver moss 

2.Kelas Antheroceropsida / Moss Horn

Characteristics - Characteristics:

1. Sheet-shaped gametophyte
2. Elongated tubular sporophytes upward, like a horn
3. In the "horn" is produced spores
4. Talus homogeneous anatomical structure, each cell mengandng one chloroplast with a large pirenoid
5. S porogonium capsule consists of foot and alone,
6. Prototype does not form spores germinate,
7. Asexual propagation with liver moss
8. Terdiri 1 yaitu Ordo Ordo Anthocerotales. Contohnya: Anthoceros, Phaeceros, Megaceros give Denroceros

   

   Moss Horn  

Bryopsida 3.Kelas 
class is the largest and highest levels of development among the three classes briopyta. Known as the moss leaf

Characteristics:

1. Prototype small leaf-shaped, each Bond will only form one gametopora
2. Gametofora consisting of a branched stems with leaves and gameetofora not have rizoid
3. S porangium have wide feet, Seta only form of depression between the distance from the capsule. Not available in capsule peristom

Benefits of mosses

Some mosses used as an ornament layout. Several species of Sphagnum can be used as a skin and eye medications.

Moss growing on the forest floor to help keep rain erosion, reduce flood hazards, and can absorb water during the dry season.

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Atmosphere (a layer of air)

Atmosphere (a layer of air)

The composition of the atmosphere

Atmosphere comes from the word " Atmo "which means the air and" SFERA "which means layers. So basically the atmosphere is a layer of earth yangmenyelimuti air. Layer of the Earth's atmosphere meurut the experts think - about the thickness of 700Km of sea level.Based on the difference in air temperature and altitude, the atmosphere is divided into epmat namely: Earth terdir of a solid object (lithosphere), bendacair (hydrosphere), and gaseous (atmospheric). All three are very influential for the survival of humans and other beings.

A. Troposphere layer

Troposphere is the lowest atmospheric layer and closest to the Earth's surface. With a height of 0 Kmsampai 12 km from the sea. Air properties that are characteristic of this layer, which we climbed 100 meters of each air temperature will drop by 0.5 ° Csampai 0.64 ° C and vice versa if we go down 100 meters of the air temperature will also stake as much as 0.5 ° C to 0, 64 ° C. The layer of the troposphere is essential to human life because it: Provides oxygen, nitrogen, and substance - other substances that are beneficial to the survival of living things. Place the process of forming weather phenomena, such as wind, rain, clouds, and so much needed living 

B. Startosfer layer

Wave reflection

The second layer of the earth's surface has a height of 12 Km and 50 Km from the sea.Lapisanini also very important for life because the layer of ozone is the gathering place of the substance it is called a zone leyer layer. This is a function of the ozone layer protects the earth from the direct influence of light ultaviolet.Ultraviolet light is very hot bahakan if directly exposed on the surface of the earth be scorched. 

C. Mesosphere layer

The third layer of the atmosphere is mesosferyang altitude 50 Km to 80 Km from the sea. Benefits of the mesosphere is the layer may reflect radio waves and television (VHF and UHF).So that we can listen to radio and watch television.

 D. Thermosphere layer

Thermos meaning heat. Layer is a layer of hot thermosphere. With a height of 80 Km to 700 KM dariatas sea. In this layer the temperature increase is very significant because of the influence of ultraviolet radiation X-rays. In the thermosphere also occur layer ionization, which causes the accumulation of protons and electrons so that the coating layer is also called the ionosphere

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Leukocytes (white blood cells)

Erythrocytes and Leukosi

Leukocytes (white blood cells)

There are six leukocytes in the blood, neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, monocytes, lymphocytes, and plasma cells. White blood cells that have granules or so-called granulocytes are neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils. Whereas lymphocytes and monocytes are called agranulosit (not bergranula).

Most of leukocytes dibentk in bone marrow (granulocytes, monocytes, and lymphocytes) and partly in the network nodes (lymphocytes and plasma cells). The materials needed to be making leukocytes are vitamins and amino acids as well as other cells.

Adults have leukocytes around 4800-10800 leukocytes per cubic milliliter of blood, consisting of 62% neutrophils, 2.3% eusinofil, basifil 0.4%, 5.3% monocytes, 30% lymphocytes. The lifetime of different leukocyte granulocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils) about 12 hours, monocytes is difficult to know because it is always wandering in the body, but presumably a few weeks or months, generally survive lymphocyte 100 -300 days.

Leukosit

In general, the benefits of leukocytes is to help the body against infection pertahannan intake. leukocytes are moving ameboid and phagocytic (prey).

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Erythrocytes (red blood cells)

Erythrocytes (red blood cells)

Characteristics and functions

Mammalian erythrocytes have no nucleus so DNA. Mammalian erythrocyte shape bikonkaf , which forms the center of the disc with a slightly flattened . This form is to optimize the exchange of oxygen. Color depending on the hemoglobin of erythrocytes.Function is to assist erythrocyte hemoglobin binds oxygen. If the hemoglobin binds oxygen, the erythrocytes berwarnah red, and if the oxygen released by hemoglobin is bluish red erythrocytes.

Levels of hemoglobin (Hb) in the blood of a person varies, depending on sex and age of a person. In the normal condition of men dewsa Hb 13-18 g per 100 ml (g / ml). Hb levels of adult women is 12-16 (g / ml), while the baby is 14-20 (g / ml) of blood.

Erythrocytes also catalyze the reaction between carbon dioxide (CO ₂) and water, because erythrocytes contain carbonic anhydrase in large numbers. This reaction allows the blood to react with CO ₂ and transport from tissues to the lungs.

The number of erythrocytes also varies, depending on sex, age, and height of a person's residence. The number of erythrocytes in normal males from 5.1 to 5.8 million per cubic milliliter of blood and normal in women from 4.3 to 5.2 million per cubic milliliter of blood. People who live in the highlands tend to have more erythrocytes. Erythrocytes can be reduced more because there are a lot of wounds that bleed and anemia. Seseorag activity will affect the blood circulation so that oxygen is removed will vary for each person (Marieb, 2004; Solomon et al. 2005).

Formation of erythrocytes

The process of formation of red blood cells is called erythropoiesis . In the few weeks of life of the embryo in the womb, erythrocytesproduced from yolk sac. Several months later, the formation of erythrocytes occurs in the liver, spleen, and lymph glands. After the baby is born erythrocytes in the form of the bone marrow. Erythrocyte production stimulated by the hormone erythropoietin . Approximately at the age of 20 years, marrow in the proximal long bones are no longer in production. Most of the erythrocytes is derived from membranous bone marrow (spine, chest, ribs, and pelvis). With increasing age, bone marrow becomes less productive.

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